Case Study of a Drug Addict

CED 322: Case Study In the case of the 46 year-old female client, I would begin my assessment of her by attempting to relieve her current state of anxiety. My first goal would be to allow her to feel safe and comfortable when she enters my office. I want her to know that my office is a safe haven from anything that causes her to relapse. In addition, by congratulating her decision to seek treatment I can make early strides in developing trust and rapport from the start.Once the client and I spend some time reviewing her life story, I would ask her to complete the SASSI-3 to give me a well balanced perspective of her overall struggle with cocaine and heroin abuse. Although I’ve been given some background information on the client’s previous history of abuse, I feel that the SASSI-3 can give me some insight to habits and traits she developed from her family and lifestyle growing up. Since I have some information about her early use of alcohol, I would also administer a MA ST which could give me some insight on her dependency with alcohol.I would be able to better understand how alcohol plays a role in her use of heroin and cocaine. Once I can determine how they correlate I can then accurately diagnose her and lead to a more successful treatment strategy. From the current information I would diagnose this client with Cocaine and Opioid- Induced Mood Disorder (292. 84). The client reports that she relapses when she has a desire to feel â€Å"numb† which tells us her emotions and feelings are primary factors that influence her addictive behavior.Also, her addiction is so severe that she claims that she uses at times for no reason at all. Since she is remorseful and fearful of her life, I feel that she is searching for the right treatment to rid herself of this life threatening addiction. She has the desire to change but is in need of the will to change. I would focus on her everyday routine, eliminating the parts of her day that involve thoughts or ideas that lead to using heroin and cocaine. I would recommend that she use the 12 step program and group therapy as new ways to guide her towards recovery.Since she using these substances in private, I feel she could possibly benefit from others who know and feel the same struggles as she does. This would allow her to not feel alone in her recovery and bring a sense of accountability to prevent from relapse. I would monitor her progress in the 12 step program and encourage her to patiently complete each step. I’m basing my treatment strategy on trust. In order to eliminate her fear and anxiety along with her addiction through these screens and methods, she must be willing to trust herself at all times.

Compare and contrast essay “traveling through the dark” and “woodchuck” Essay

â€Å"Traveling through the Dark† by William E. Stanford and â€Å"Woodchucks† by Maxine Kumin a man must make the choice of nature and its ways. Both poems have their similarities and differences. Traveling through the dark and woodchucks share various ways of similarities, Man vs Nature Death situations are involved in both poems. Through the use of narrations both poems have different attitudes. Traveling through the dark starts off dark and progress towards a more serious tone and, the reader sympathizes with the main action in getting the dead deer off the road. So he can prevent future deaths. Both poems use strong verbs to communicate the point effectively as possible. Traveling through the dark has no rhyme scheme and follows contemplative tone, that comes from the decision of life and death which sets the mood of the poem: sadness and despair. Kumin uses â€Å" beheaded† and â€Å"hooked† to illustrate the images to she wants to communicate. In Woodchuck, Maxine talks about the violence in killing the woodchuck and actually shows the reader the killing and violence whereas the Traveling through the dark illustrates a human reaction to the less-violent act. The poem however does have a rhyme scheme but does not conform to conventional forms of rhyme. The first stanza happens when the speaker describing their failed attempt to eliminate the pest. Following through the poem a sense of humor becomes between the writer and the woodchucks. Each poem has a violent, grim, painful and guilty tone to it, maybe some or less in others. while reading â€Å"traveling through the dark† the doe’s death and the inescapable fate of the baby fawn brings on a feeling of guilt, more so that the poem of the â€Å"woodchucks†, also in the contrast the â€Å"woodchucks poem emphasizes on violence more than its partner. Throughout the story the narrator is blood thirsty and cares only about the death of woodchucks but does not relate to what is actually happening around the time or what was happening around him the nazi period. The death of each animal leaves the reader feeling sad and hopeless. In comparison, Kumin only focuses on the man’s reaction to the the woodchucks â€Å"beheading the carrots†, traveling through the dark is more objective as compared to the woodchucks which is more emotional although they are both almost equal effective.

Health and Social introduction Essay

The sector that I have chosen to write my report on is ‘children and young people’, I chose this sector because I am hoping to work with children when I am older. The client group is children who are 2 – 4 year old(Nursery age) the care setting will be nurserys in England. The work of the sector Nurseries provide full day care and education for children from as young as six weeks to pre-school five year olds. Day nurseries are different from nursery schools and can be privately run, community, council or workplace services. They all must be registered and regulary inspected by Oftsed though and must comply with the guidlines of how much staff there should be to children(for under two’s, one carer to three children; two to three year olds, one carer to four children; three to five year olds, one carer to eight children). All staff there must have or must be working towards the relevant qualifications in children. The care setting and client group The purpose of a nursery is to provide care for those under the legal school age(5). The care may be needed if the parents work or if the parents just want their child to get used to been around other children of similar age so they can get their confidence up. In a nursery there will usually be between 10 and 26 children in it depending how big or small it is. Nurseries are more likely to be in a rural area because families with children will more likely live there, any care setting for children in Urban areas will more likely be private care. Facilites in a nursery : Nurseries will have a lot of many factilites that are suitable for the children, there will be a mix of play areas which are an important part of the childs development in the nursery years. There will possible be a soft play area for younger children, plenty of toys(suitable for the ages) a sand pit and/or a water pit for them to, depending on the age the nursery accepts though. They may even have an outside area for play which would be best for the oldest children in the nursery, the outside area would have tricicles(maybe) and possibly Jungle-Jim equipment that the children can play on. Inside they are likely to have a small reading area(where the children will sit down on the carpet like they do in reception). Toilets, possibly a changing room depending on the ages the nurseries accepts. They may have a small kitchen or an upstairs caffeteria if connected to a school. The differet practicioners : Manager, deputy manager, room leaders(depending on how big the nursery is), workers, volunteers, special education needs coordinator(senco). If the nursery is big they will possible have a cook and maybe an administrator. The clients will only meet the room leaders, workers, volunteers(as these are the ones who look after/teach the children) and maybe the senco depending on if they need one. The manager and deputy manager are there to make sure that the nursery runs smoothly and that they keep to the standards expected of them(buying supplies, keeping in contact with parents). The room leader is there to be in charge of a certain room in the building, these are only needed for the bigger nurseries.

English SLP 5 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

English SLP 5 - Essay Example Following are the highlights of my related skills and qualification: BE Mechanics. MBA Operations Management. 7 years of experience in textile industry where my core job responsibilities were to maintain production plants, analysis of production reports and procurement of new machinery. 5 years of experience in cement industry where I joined as an operations manager. Here my basic responsibility was to look after the existing facility. I have been concerned about location design, selection and maintenance of facility as part of my current job. Operations managers are critically required to assist all the business activities while ensuring the smooth flow of input, process and output (Greasley, 2008). As per the requirement of United States Steel Corporation, I possess sound understanding of location management and hence I will prove beneficial for your organization in terms of future strategic decisions and facility planning. Effective and efficient planning is the core component of achieving competitive advantage because it outlines the fundamental goals and objectives while giving an execution procedure to the company (Arnold, et. al., 2011). I have good communication skills which are essential for managers. Moreover, I can perform exceptionally well in terms of generating electronic reports and analyzing data. Computer skills including preparation of data sheets, online research and data interpretation are the sole responsibilities of an operations manager at US Steel Mill and I can surely perform well on all these job related tasks. Professionally I am very flexible and available to work at different schedules. The operations manager is required to perform distinctive job responsibilities and I can effectively manage different tasks simultaneously. Hence I will prove productive for the organization due to my huge experience in different industries and also because of my critical thinking and quick analysis. I can efficiently meet short deadlines without com promising on the quality of work. Moreover, I can coordinate with other departments including sales, marketing, human resource, finance, accounting etc. In addition to this I work with due consideration to the ethical code of conduct while refraining from breach of law. This can be further verified from my enclosed certificates and awards received from my past experience. I can surely benefit the organization in different ways while maintaining its prestige and reputation in society. I am looking forward to serve you through all possible ways while utilizing my skills and abilities. Enclosed is my resume for your consideration. Sincerely, [Name] E-mail to Mother Dear Mom, I am excited to inform you that United States Steel Corporation is now offering a vacancy in operations department. It was my dream to serve the US steel mill as an operations manager and hence I immediately sent my resume and all other related documents. The Human Resource Manager has called me for an interview on this Friday at the Steel Mill Headquarters and therefore I will leave today by the evening. Although my dream is about to get fulfilled yet I am worried about your response because after shifting there I would not be able to meet you every Sunday nor I would be able to have random conversions with others at home. Surely I will miss the precious family time we spend together.

Summary Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Summary - Case Study Example Mrs. Fairlie's son Hamish benefited from this program and now goes to regular school. Miss Taylor's chosen charity was Make a Difference, a small charity that supports children and their families in Sydney suffering from financial crisis. These Sydney families would be directly supported by the funds raised here. Both ladies were awarded $15000 each to visit their charities of choice, as well as a trip to Hawaii. APEC summits usually draw their share of protesters to each meet, and the businesses of the CBD at Sydney are being asked to beef up security in anticipation of untoward events or damages to property by protesters. According to the NSW Business chamber's chief executive, Kevin MacDonald, the challenge for the businesses would be to cope with upsets in everyday business due to security and transport measures taken by the government as well as taking on additional individual security measures. The reinforced security measures could include simple things like locking doors, limiting access to vital areas and increasing the amount of security at the shop fronts. Businesses with shop fronts would be particularly vulnerable, and both Australian as well as international businesses could be targeted. These conclusions are based on previous experiences of demonstrations by protesters at APEC summits. All businesses are therefore taking the threat of possible damage to property very seriously . This year, the theme of the one of t... Since Bowral is the home of the cricket icon Don Bradman, and the McGrath Foundation is founded by former Australian cricketer Glenn McGrath, the natural association of cricket into the cause of breast awareness is marked by two remarkable themed gardens. Other than the100,000 tulips in the Corbett Gardens, some exotic private gardens can be seen on the "Garden Trail", and art, textile and pottery exhibitions enjoyed on the "Garden and Art Trail" spread across the Southern Highlands. The weekend would also be marked by a food and wine festival, a special charity cricket day, and a gala dinner. ---------------------------------------- The APEC summit would end with a short, five-minute fireworks display. This is supposed to mark the end of the summit, and would complement the appearance of the APEC logo that would be shining on the Sydney Harbour Bridge from September 2 to 9. The fireworks would be sent off from various tall ships and yachts, but not from the Sydney Bridge itself, and the entire display would be called "River of Fire". The show would be exclusive to the visiting dignitaries who would be attending a 45-minute performance featuring young Australian artists inside the nearby Sydney Opera House. Since the fireworks display would be very short, and would be held inside the area under APEC security restrictions, APEC spokeswoman Anne Fulwood felt that the general public would enjoy it better on their television sets. This would also prevent any disruptions in the area under the APEC strict security lock-down. ----------------------------- A new music, art and media festival called Up! would be presented by the Frontier Touring Company this spring. It would be headed by

Marie Antoinette was a Victim of French Society Research Paper

Marie Antoinette was a Victim of French Society - Research Paper Example This essay analyzes the claim that Marie Antoinette was a victim of the French society. Female Victimization in Revolutionary France How British women view Marie Antoinette exposes the fact that they know it was the gender of the Queen that was besieged, and that, as contemporary scholars confirm, her prosecution for treason â€Å"was staged virtually as a morality play on the evil impact of women on the body politic† (Craciun 2003, 77). The portrayal of Marie Antoinette as a victim has an impact akin to her image as sexual behemoth in the obscene propaganda. As argued by Hunt, Marie Antoinette threatens the male-dominated public domain because she is â€Å"the emblem (and sacrificial victim) of the feared disintegration of gender boundaries that accompanied the Revolution† (Goodman 2003, 131). This peril to gender differentiation reached the outer boundaries of France and outside political scholarship. The Queen was the most prominent and remarkable enchantress at the time, likened at the initial phase of her prosecution to several legendary femmes fatales (Craciun 2003, 78): †¦ like Messaline, Brunchant, Fredigonde, and Medicis, who were formerly qualified with the titles of the Queen of France, whose names have ever been odious, and will never be effaced from the pages of history—Marie Antoinette, widow of Louis Capet, has, since here abode in France, been the scourge and the blood sucker of the French†¦ having squandered the finances of France†¦ in a dreadful manner, to satisfy inordinate pleasures, and to pay the agents of her criminal intrigues. The above statement was supported by Pierre Saint-Amand, who stated that â€Å"the execution of Marie Antoinette was by no means an affair of state† (Kilgore-Mueller 2008, 74). The Queen’s trial was not conducted in the Convention, but in the revolutionary court. At some point in the prosecution of Citizen Capet, the name of Marie Antoinette had been mentioned to d emonstrate that she would be stripped of any privileges after the King’s death. Her case was to be heard in a judicial court just like any other accused for the crime of treason. Her case was to be heard by the jury, not by national legislature (Kilgore-Mueller 2008, 74-75). The revolutionary court would target her personal activities or private life, attacking â€Å"the woman in her as much as the queen† (Fraser 2001, 123). As stated by Saint-Amand, the Queen and the woman was a victim of (Goodman 2003, 257): †¦ backlash against the advancement of women in the public sphere, against their increased visibility and competition with men for participation in social institutions. When people denounced Marie Antoinette they also denounced the excessive publicity of aristocratic women†¦ [She] was perceived as the most unbridled symbol of this new representation of women. Marie Antoinette has endlessly been linked to controversy and scandal. Sensational and scandalo us propaganda depicted her as sexually voracious and, in 1793, at her trial, she was charged of raping her son. Scholars have associated the controversies about Marie

SWOT Analysis Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 2

SWOT Analysis - Essay Example Further, the same industry generated actual revenues during the 2009 and 2010 gambling periods. The 2009 gambling revenue reached $ 10,393 million. Favorably, the 2010 gambling period produced favorably higher actual revenues, $10,405 (Statistica, 2014). Client-centered innovative strategies boost gaming industry revenues. The company, Nevada Gold and Casinos Company, is engaged in casino gambling activities. The company is located within Nevada gambling area. The company caters to the resorts and casino needs of current and future customers. The gambling rooms include the popular slot machines (Nevada Gold Casino, 2014). The company offers several gambling game options. The options cater to the slot machine gamblers’ needs. The other gamblers will patronize the card games. The company delivers the bingo games to selected patrons. Other visitors will troop to the roulette gambling table (Twst.com, 2006). The company offers high quality hospitality service to its gambling patrons. The customers can easily buy beverage from the friendly and accommodating casino staff. The dedicated and sincere hotel room employees enthusiastically deliver quality hospitality services. As proof, Nevada Gold Casino generated $62,807,000 the year ended April 30, 2014. The company generated the same year’s $ 448,000 net profit (Nevada Gold Casino, 2014). The company is small in size. The company needs additional top quality line and staff employees to increase the company’s current revenue generating activities. With more line and staff employees, more customers will feel a reduction in the casino cashiers’ queue lines. The employees deliver quality casino restaurant services to the gambling customers. As a new company, the company lacks the actual experiences needed to ensure a synergistic coordination of all the casino’s activities (Twst.com, 2006). The Casino can open up more spaces to cater to other visitors. The

Direct Manipulation and Virtual Environments Essay

Direct Manipulation and Virtual Environments - Essay Example This is because users can see the outcomes of an action before completing the object; thus, evaluating the results and compensating for mistakes (Wang and Tsai, 2011). A command line structure on the other hand is an interaction with a computer program through which the user gives commands to the program in the form of consecutive lines of texts. A command line shell is used to implement an interface. The command line shell is a program that would accept commands as text input converting them to operating system functions. Programs are easily automated through scripting if only they have command line interfaces. The command line structure provides an access to the arguments and the name used to invoke the running program (Wang and Tsai, 2011). Direct manipulation style can be applied in pupil’s interaction with some educational software. The computer interface can encourage people to think, plan on relevant issues and learn more successfully. The direct manipulation is very effective to learning and is likely to broaden learners’ notion on task beyond their computer interaction. This style will be effective in increasing learner’s legibility in future to improve the current processes and create new

Is the Canadian Prime Minister, Stephen Harper too powerful Essay

Is the Canadian Prime Minister, Stephen Harper too powerful - Essay Example Harper's role as the prime minister of Canada grants him the ability to control the interactions of resources in foreign countries, for instance, aiding countries such as Israel in the past, and present. This not only which presents the image of wealthy, authoritative force that dramatically affects not only his home country but those countries outside of Canada.Harper's role as the prime minister of Canada grants him the ability to control the interactions of resources in foreign countries, for instance, aiding countries such as Israel in the past, and present. This not only which presents the image of wealthy, authoritative force that dramatically affects not only his home country but those countries outside of Canada.   Ultimately, power is everything to most people. It is every politician’s dream to yield power over others. Harper rose to power in 2006 when his party formed the government. In the 2011 elections, he formed a government which enjoys support in parliament. He controls both houses using his party, the conservative party. He is in no doubt powerful and yields immense power more than any other prime minister before him. He enjoys massive support in parliament since his party has more members than any other party. He is allowed to appoint senators and he recently made appointments that increased the number of conservatives in the Senate. This has made it easier for him to control the Senate. Harper is also a party leader.   He is the leader of the conservative party which gives him power because he is able to control policies and tactics within the party. Parliamentarians allied to the party are bound to party policies. Harper’s ability to control the ability has also empowered him. He is able to decide what the media says about him. Harper’s administration has the highest number of communication officials compared to any other administration before him.

Trafficking Of Drugs Essay Example for Free

Trafficking Of Drugs Essay Introduction   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Central Asia is one of the regions that international groups are focusing on. Aside form the challenges of establishing its independence it still faces today, it also has to deal with the internal struggles of restructuring social infrastructures. The Central Asian region’s undeniable value is its strategic geographic position between Asia and Europe (Esfandiari, 2004). The stability of Central Asia is seen as a key factor than can ease tension in the region, enhance trade and stabilize the political structure. The prevalence of the illegal drug industry is considered as one of the major deterrents for stabilization in the region (Cornell, 2006). The elimination of illegal drugs is a global concern. The United Nations (UN) is targeting to control the international trade of illegal drugs by 2008 (UN General Assembly, 1998). The prevalence of the illegal drug trade industry is seen as not just an issue of crime prevention but also as a geographical, social and political issue that affects the stability of nations and the security of the international community.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Central Asia has a long history of trans-border relations. The region ahs been defined more by its political versus geographic delineations. This has contributed to the richness of the region in terms of culture and relations. However, this also reflects that the security of borders is not a historical aptitude for the region and current border problems maybe a consequence of this historical predicament   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The chief producers of opium and opium-derivates drugs in Asia is the Golden Triangle in South East Asia consisting of Myanmar, Laos, and Thailand and the Golden Crescent consisting of Iran, Pakistan, and Afghanistan. Because of the establishment of Afghanistan as the primary producer of opium in the world and the consequent control of the trade in the Golden Triangle, the Golden Crescent has become the region of greater concern (Saidazimova, 2005). Another critical factor in the demand for better control of the drug trade in Central Asia is because of the indication from studies that bulk of the drugs in Europe is being sourced from the region. The concern for controlling the illegal drug trade however has a more important motivation for the countries in the region. Researches conducted by the UN’s Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) have indicated the link of the drug trade to terrorism and crime (UNODC, 2006a). The proliferation of drugs and related crime has significantly affected the economy and the stability of the region, severely detrimental to efforts in building the region as a major business hub for Asia and Europe. Central Asian Drug Trade   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Alexander von Humboldt was the first to refer to the region as Central Asia. As seen in Figure 2, the concept what makes up the region has changed together with the current powers in the region. The region for the most part of the century was under Soviet Rule. Borders were redefined after the collapse of the Soviet Union in the 1990’s and succeeding wars and conflicts in the region (â€Å"Afghanistan†, 2006)   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The modern concept of the geographic region includes Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, Tajikistan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Mongolia, Western China, Northeast Iran, Afghanistan and Western Pakistan. The region has suffered inveterate incidents of civil violence from ethnic and militant groups (Olcott Udalova, 2000). After the September 11th bombings, the US invasion of Afghanistan put the region into the limelight.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   In the course of this global scrutiny, the international community has realized the key role that the region plays in the establishment of stability and security in the region and the Middle East. Another issue that became a highlight is the increasing significance of the region in the opium and heroin drug trade (United Nations Information Service [UNIS], 2005). The problem of drug trafficking in the region developed its current structure after the Cold War. One of the key factors that is an urgent concern in the region is border management and security. The lack of economic opportunities is also an underlying factor in the pervasiveness of illegal drug production and distribution (Cornell, 2006). The growing presence of crime groups is also capitalizing on the illegal drug trade to finance its operations. The region has seen a direct correlation of the trade with cross-border crime, trafficking or arms and people, money laundering and terrorism. Swanstrom (2001) points outs that the concern in the region is not only in its role a major producer but the greater concern should be focused in its role as a transit point. He estimates that the region will not be able to develop unless it first stops being the preferred channel of transporting drugs. The region is home to a rich ethnic history. The region which is the key element of the Eurasian continent represents a marriage of cultures of the East and West. Ethnic groups like Persians, Greeks, Arabs, Turks, Mongols, Uzbeks, Kyrgyz, British and the Soviets. The regions of Central Asia, particularly the Soviet areas are the ones that most industrialized and developed infrastructure. However these regions have also experiences a high degree of cultural repression. This has established a psychology distrust of government in valuing local leaderships more (â€Å"Central Asia†, 2006). Afghanistan   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Afghanistan serves as the gateway to Asia and the Middle East. It has been a focal point for trade dating back to the beginnings of caramel caravans and the Silk Road. As a nation, it was established by Ahmad Shah Durrani in 1747 and was part of the United Kingdom’s territories until the early 20th century. The conclusion of the Anglo-Afghan war in 1919 restored the nation’s independence. The country figured in the international once more when it was invaded by Russia in 1979. After the withdrawal of Russia in the 1990’s, the Taliban, a fundamentalist Muslim group that traces its origins in Iran and Pakistan took control of the country. The Taliban controlled 90% of the country while the remaining 10% was under the control of resistance forces led by Ahmad Shah Massoud. Massoud was assassinated in September 9, 2001 two days before the bombing of the World Trade Center in the United States. Some believe that Osama Bin Laden, leader of the extremist Al Qaeda ordered his assassination as a strategy in the event that the US partner with the Afghan resistance forces against the Taliban in Afghanistan. The US led invasion of Afghanistan in 2001 in pursuit of Bin Laden, Al Qaeda has deposed the Taliban and has supported the Presidency of Hamid Karzai. The country today is still hosting the NATO troops authorized in December 2001 by the UN’s Security Council as part of an effort to establish the authority and leadership of the new Afghan government (â€Å"Afghanistan†, 2006).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   In Figure 5, it is shown that Afghanistan today is the undeniable leader the opium and heroin market. This, together with its strategic geographic position in the region makes it the keystone in the drug trade in Central Asia (UN Security Council, 2003). It is estimated that the country now supplies 75% of the world wide market, one third of which ends up in Europe. There has been success in the areas of cultivation but the production from the products has not diminished proportionately (McDermott, 2006). According to Lubin (2001), the farming of opium is remaining a staple in rural agricultural because of the lack of economic opportunities for farmers. The presence of criminal networks in Afghanistan, like the rest of the other countries in the region, is discouraging foreign investment (Swanstrom, 2003). The criminal groups are also being credited with interfering with the government, inciting insurgency and encouraging corruption.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The UN has sponsored programs to address the issues that are escalating the drug trade in the country. The primary objective is to decrease production through the combination of effective regulation and providing livelihood for farmers in the country. Through the Office of Drug Control and Crime Prevention (UN ODCCP), programs are also trying to place criminal groups based in the country, the region and the Golden Triangle. Consequently, the channels that are linked to Afghanistan are also become the target of international police programs (Lubin, 2001) Kyrgyzstan   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Kyrgyzstan traces its origins to a mix of Kipchak and Mongol ancestry that settled in Russia’s Tuva region approximately in the 10th century. When the Mongol empire took possession of the territory of the Kyrgyz people, they opted to move southward seeking refuge from the Mongol Hordes. It was in the 1400’s that the Kyrgyz emerged as a group and was incorporated into the Russian territories making up its Empire. The Russian takeover was meant with significant resistance and fractioned the Kyrgyz people to Afghanistan, the Pamir region and China. The Kara-Kyrgyz Autonomous Oblast was founded in 1919 and in December 5, 1936, it was formally accepted as a republic of the Soviet Union. Tension in the Osh Oblast between Uzbeks and Kyrgyz in 1990 marked the beginning of a series of violent confrontations that lasted from June to August of the year. Order was restored due to significant reforms and a new leadership in the government. It was also at this time that the country joined Commonwealth of Independent States which was made up of the Central Asian Republics. Before the end of 1990, the Supreme Soviet formally changed the name of the state to the Republic of Kyrgyzstan which in 1993 became the Kyrgyz Republic. More recent developments in the country include the Tulip Revolution in March 2005 that forced the resignation of Askar Akayev and installed Kurmanbek Bakiyev as President and Minister Feliks Kulov as Prime Minister. The country has yet been able to stabilize politics in the country. This has stunted growth in the country and at the same time has encouraged crime and militant and terrorist groups. There is still significant inter-ethnic tension, historically a perennial concern for the nation, affecting civil order and compromising security and efficiency of government (â€Å"Kyrgyzstan†, 2006).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Kyrgyzstan’s involvement in the drug trade in Central Asia is not in cultivation or production. The role of the country in the drug trade lies in its strategic viability to transport drugs to Europe from the major produces such as Afghanistan. Turkmenistan and Tajikistan have historically been more involved in the transport of drugs form Central Asia as well as those from South East Asia. However, as drug traffickers expand their operations in the region, Kyrgyzstan along with Kazakhstan, is becoming another key channel for the drug trade (â€Å"Kyrgyzstan Confronted by Narcotics Nightmare As Drug Trade Booms†, 2006). As seen in Table 1, opiate seizures in the country remain relatively low and stable compared with its neighbors. This indicates that though there are significant amounts at any given time of opiates and its derivatives in Kyrgyzstan (UNODC, 2006b), there are very few seizures. This may be an indication that its presence is more transitory.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Similar with the situation of farmers in Afghanistan, one of the reasons for the prevalence of the trade is lack of economic opportunity. More significantly in Kyrgyzstan rather than in Afghanistan is the security of its borders. The existing civil unrest in the country has limited the resources to monitor the security of its borders, easing the transportation of not only drugs but also arms and people (Burke, 2001). As a country that only post a per capita income of $2,900, among the lowest in the world, drug trafficking provides an irresistible lure to the impoverished citizens (Swanstrom, 2001).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The country has been one of the first to establish anti-narcotics and supporting trafficking laws. For a long time, the laws acted more as prevention rather than actual part of policing efforts. Traffickers previously concentrated on Turkmenistan and Tajikistan in transporting drugs. However, the industry has grown in the region so much that crime organizations are trying to expand the channels available to them (Marat, 2006). Saidazimova (2005) has pointed out that the existing drugs in the region are not just the one produced there but is also made up of drugs from the Golden Triangle. Following the international operations of a transnational corporation, dealers are competing not just for the availability but also the control of the channels of distribution. Thus, many of the drug syndicates are trying to develop new transport systems and indications from studies conducted by the UN and EU are showing that Kyrgyzstan is becoming a popular option for them (Swanstrom, 2001) Impact of the Drug Trade   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   In theory, crime is primarily a concern for the police. However, because of the desire of organized crime to create the conditions that suit them, they try to undermine government, security and civil society. If the state is secure and has the necessary infrastructure for administration or governance, then it can mange and deter the machinations of organized crime. In the case of Central Asian countries, this is not a capability that is readily available. The presence of organized crime that is responsible for the illegal drug trade has undermined the security, state institutions, encouraged the corruption, political instability and violence, and has exacerbated relations among the countries in the region (Cornell, 2006). Security The drug trade is profiting from the scarce resources allotted for the administration of the countries’ borders. Because of the lack or border patrols, the transport of the drugs has been made easier for the traffickers. Land-based transport has been traditionally avoided by traffickers because it was considered riskier than air or sea freight (Esfandiari, 2004). It has increased in viability that even the Golden Triangle is choosing Central Asia to traffic their drugs instead of following the unwritten historical territorial jurisdiction of their operations (Saidazimova, 2005). Better drug control programs against the Golden Triangle have been effective in limiting transportation of drugs produced in the region. At the same time, the crackdown on production has been effective in diminishing the industry in the region (see Figure 5). Security in the areas of the country were the drug trade has its strongholds has severely compromised state and civil security. Reports in Afghanistan of syndicates attacking security convoys, both those of the Afghan government and UN forces are prevalent (â€Å"Drug Industry Threatens to Derail Afghanistans State Building†, 2006). At first, the attacks were attributed to Taliban forces but recent information from investigations in the affected areas reveal that a significant number of the forces were either a combination of Taliban and drug syndicates or just the syndicates themselves (Nazemroaya, 2006). In the case of Kyrgyztan, prior to the Tulip Revolution, there have been reports in the national papers that crime syndicates were taking control of rural areas in the country amidst the political disorder in the country’s capitals (â€Å"Kyrgyztan†, 2006). The country is very vulnerable in its stage today: investor confidence and industries has to be built up significantly. Analysts believe that unless the country can be able to address its security issues, very little progress can be achieved in this objective (Esfandiari, 2004). This is one of the motivation of drug syndicates to provoke crime so that legitimate business do not develop in competitor with their enterprise. State Institutions  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The government is dealing with the trade not just as its protagonist but also internally. In both Afghanistan and Kyrgyzstan, there has been some concern regarding the link of government officials to the drug trade. The weak presence of government in remote regions is also becoming an advantage for the drug syndicates. According to Olcott and Udalova (2000), in some areas, the traffickers are even presenting themselves as the legitimate government. Some do not even bother with subterfuge and simply overpower the locals for their operations. More alarming is that some local even begin supporting these groups because they seemingly provide livelihood to them while at the same time become more real to them than the legitimate government so far away in their respective nations’ capitals (UNIS, 2005). In Afghanistan, the Taliban has long been linked to the syndicates. This implies that even if the Taliban were not participating in terrorist activities, its role as a government institution is marred by its link to the drug trade. Some have even implied that the profit from the opium trade during the Taliban occupation, estimated to have ranged between US$ 10 million to US$ 75 million, was one of the core partnerships the organization has with the Al Qaeda (Lubin, 2001). In Kyrgyztan, there have also been claims of the link of some government officials to the Russian mafia concerned with the drug trade. The weakness of state institutions has been credited with the expansion of the drug trade channel linking Tajikistan, southern Kyrgyzstan in Central Asia with the Chinese provinces of Xinjiang and Yunnan (Swanstrà ¶m, 2003). Corruption  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Related to the link of government officials directly or indirectly to the drug trade is the problem of corruption. Corruption can be in the form asking favors in the form of leniency as payback for support to the official. Another form of corruption is the utilization of proceeds from the trade as protection and incentive (UNODC, 2006a). One of the deterrents in addressing the drug trafficking problem is the execution of the intervention programs. The UN’s Security Council has pointed out that in order to be able to effectively to deal with the problem, government has to be able to show its integrity and authority. If government efforts are perceived as corruptible then instead of discouraging the drug traffickers, it may even be an encouragement for them. The issue does not even require that a government is resolutely corrupt, the mere state of being more corrupt than another nation, regardless of actual prevalence, can significantly increase a country’s preference to the drug trade. The development of the drug trade in Kyrgyztan has been associated with the corrupt Russian military officers who were based in Tajikistan. Both the United Nations and the European Union cite them to have developed the cultivation in the country as well as established the channels of transportation (Maitra, 2005). None of these claims have been admitted to by the Russian military or have been supported by any study. Regardless of whether the claims are true or not, this only reflects the perception of corruption as linked with the prevalence of the drug trade in the country. According to studies conducted by the UN, the decline of the routes in Iran because due to more effective programs against corruption on its borders has increased the attractiveness of Afghani routes (UNODC, 1999). This, like with the developments in Tajikistan and Kyrgyzstan, have established a route that corruption has encouraged not only for drugs but also for all other forms of contraband. Political Instability and Violence Drug traffickers incite and practice violence to coerce people into the trade. This is a strategy to protect their activities as well as to accumulate power. Recent studied have indicated that drug trafficking is the preferred cash cow of most criminal organizations an is only to be expected that they are more than willing to engage in violence to protect it (Maitra, 2005). Tamara Makarenko of the University of Saint Andrews in Scotland’s Center for the Study of Terrorism and Political Violence says that competition among the criminal networks in the trade is also a contributor to the level of violence (Esfandiari, 2005). This level of violence has severely affected the political stability: warlords are taking over government positions; there has been censorship of the real prevalence of drugs and the control of resources (UN Security Council, 2003). Makarenko has alluded that the sheer magnitude of the drug trade has effectively affected all levels of the political system, from the citizenry to the states themselves: The trade itself is so large in Central Asia now and there are so many different types of people and groups involved, that the strategy that has to be considered is one that involves all different levels To tackling this as a political problem and to say there is no room to compromise with warlords†¦ (Esfandiari, 2005). He further alludes to the situation in Afghanistan as one that needs political will to reach grassroots of the society since the country’s main concern is production and cultivation (Esfandiari, 2005). Another spectrum that has to be considered is that unless the region is able to become more politically stable and control violence, then little progress in achieving peace and prosperity can be achived which in turn can contribute to further political instability and violence. EU External Relations Commissioner Chris Patten told newly independent Central Asian countries like Kyrgyzstan â€Å"†¦are of strategic importance to Europe and EU enlargement will allow us to strengthen political and economic ties with the region, while making clear that a sustainable and fruitful relationship requires tangible steps to consolidate civil rights and the rule of law. (Maitra, 2005). Inter-Regional Relations As international pressure to control the drug trade increases, countries are becoming pressured to control trafficking in exchange for funding from relief organizations. This has prompted the development of tension in the region as to whose country is not being effective in solving the drug trade in its borders. Historically, the region has already had significant border issues and the drug trade which relies on trans-border operations is highlighting this conflict (â€Å"Threat Posed from the Convergence of Organized Crime, Drug Trafficking, and Terrorism†, 2000). The link or organized crime groups to terrorism are also increasing the inter-regional pressure. With the international crackdown on terrorism, nations fear that they will become identified with terrorists or that they become caught in the firing line of the pursuit against them. An example for this kind of development was shown when the Taliban came into power in Afghanistan in 1996. In the cause of transporting the opium produced in Afghanistan, traffickers took virtual control of the border between Tajikistan and Afghanistan. In defense of the problem of drug trafficking in Kyrgyztan, President Kurmanbek Bakiyev is pointing out that the country has a low cultivation and production level of opium and that it is being victimized the ineffectivity of the drug programs of its neighbors (Swanstrom, 2001). In 2003, the Central Asian region expressed its concern when US troops allied with known Afghan warlords in pursuing Taliban cells. The concern for is rooted from the identification of these warlords as drug traffickers. (Maitra, 2005). This move has raised concerns that Afghanistan’s drug lords, who control most of the drug trades in the region, are being given concessions for their support to US Forces. The development has contributed to the perception that regional cooperation is not feasible and that nations have to guard their backs against each other in the war against the drug trade.   The Future of the Drug Trade   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The UN’s goals of globally eradicating drugs are not anymore an achievable target. One weakness of the programs is that it focused on the trade itself. The focus was in policing the trade, apprehending traffickers and eliminating the channels of trade (Nazemroaya, 2006). Though the efforts have been earnest, it failed to address the nature of the drug problem in Central Asia. Programs that were designed were more like programs to eliminate the use of drugs. In Central Asia, only 10% of the drugs produced are consumed locally, it more profitable to transport it to Europe and Russia (Kyrgyz State Commission on Drug Control, 1999).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The United Nations, European Union and Central Asian countries have reviewed their programs to address the roots of the drug problem in the region. The personalized programs in Central Asia is trying to alleviate the hold of drug syndicates in rural area, particularly the massive cultivation of opium in Afghanistan and the developing role of Kyrgyzstan in the transport of opium produced in Afghanistan. Programs include the creation of economic opportunities in the problem areas, strengthening government in the areas and demilitarization of criminal groups (Olcott Udalova, 2000). Trends   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   According to studies conducted by the UNODC, the prevalence of opiate drugs is relatively stable however; this trend is not being reflected in Central Asia. This implies that though the world trend is declining because of better control in key regions like the Golden Triangle, the Golden Crescent trade is still prospering if not benefiting by international drug control (UNODC, 1999).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Before, the main means of measuring prevalence has been the seizure rates but the UN and the EU have now incorporated rehabilitation indicators to assess the pervasiveness of the drug abuse. To measure the reach how much of the drugs produced is being consumed by the market. From the survey of drugs users seeking rehabilitation from opiate use, it can be inferred that more people are gaining access to the products form Central Asia. As illustrated in Figure 6, the increase of those seeking opiate rehabilitation has increased except in Africa by as much as 32%. It is exhibiting the highest incidence in rehabilitation from 2000 to 2006 (UNODC, 2006a).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The Border Management Programme in Central Asia (BOMCA) and the Central Asian Drug Action Programme (CADAP) are becoming the key action bodies addressing drug trafficking in the region. Their first part of the programs were concentrating on creating assessment reports on border management capacities, training for management and policing and the possible areas of cooperation not only within the region but also with the EU and the UN. (BOMCA, 2005). In 2004, the BOMCA and CADAP worked with legislation of laws and upgraded training programs for border patrol in Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan, Uzbekistan and Kazakhstan. The programs were conducted in cooperation with EU border police officers and included strategic and computer technology training.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Saidazimova (2005) points out that the region respond to this challenge independently as nations and as a region. The control of the Golden Triangle trade can provide insights to the strategies necessary for strategies. The approach should involve a global perspective but a local approach. The drug trade in Central Asia will continue to figure prominently in the EU’s concerns and is a strategic element in controlling drugs in Europe, particularly opiates. Analysts believe that most programs and actions that will be enforced will be by non-Central Asian interest groups like the EU and the UN because the region itself has limited resources to dent the trade activities. Strategies   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The current action in addressing the drug trade today is taking a multi-faceted approach. The strategy seems to be combat the problems at all levels at the same time. The objective is to suffocate the drug trade and break linkages so that it becomes fragmented. This will address the viability of the trafficking and in turn will remove the profit from cultivation and production (UN Security Council, 2003).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Consider the BOMCA-CADAP strategy. Their programs include â€Å"high-level advice and guidance in upgrading legislation, to delivering expertise in airport security, or the use of dogs to detect drugs†. This considers the importance of the political and executive will to implement control programs. Through these efforts that essential legislation and infrastructures are developed to address the situations. Without the needed legislation that is uniform in the region’s countries, there will not be a comprehensive deterioration of the trade. Differential legislation may make one country become a haven for the traffickers when punishment is perceived to be more lenient. The establishment of the needed infrastructure to address the problem operationally is also seen as key factor. When border patrols don’t have the capability to pursue and apprehend traffickers, it makes the effort wasted. If the border patrols are outgunned or out-resourced by the traffickers, they are not only endangered but also can enhance the position of the traffickers as powers in the region (BOMCA, 2005).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The EU’s participation in the fight has shifted from border control to the creation of programs addressing the economic and social factors underlying the drug trade. Studies have indicated that if programs are cventerd on border dontrol, traffickers only deveise new ways to transport the drugs. This additional risk has even the effect of jacking up prices and in turn makes the trade even more lucrative (Nazemroaya, 2006). The EU is also providing support to regional programs such as BOMCA-CADAP by providing technical training support as well. An effort by EU Member States led by Austria is providing funding and program development in the region (BOMCA, 2005).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   On the part of the UN, there are several of its branches that are providing the needed research and information for the development of the programs. Among these branches are the UN Development Programme (UNDP), the UNIS and the UNODC. The UNDP is formulating the programs to address the economic and industrial development of rural areas in the region to attack the problem at the production level (UNODC, 1999). The programs are focusing on development of agriculture and the other legitimate industries. One of the major developments to be undertaken in the next five years is the utilization of the same drug trade routes to make transport hubs to Europe for products from continental Asia. On the other hand the UNODC is conduting a regional and coutry survey of the actual prevalence of the opium trade. One of the first parts of their study included the grading of cultivation in the region (UNODC, 2006a). The nest level of the studiest they are to conduct will be grease toward the identification of specific criminal activites to the trade. This is an effort to understand further the link of activities like terrorism and money laundering to drug trafficking in the region. The UNIS primary objectives for the next couple of year sis to provide information regarding the accomplishment of the 2008 UN General Assembly Special Session’s drug control objectives. The UNIS is providing important information to individual countries who can not afford to conduct the studies themselves while at the same time establishing correlation that can provide insights for the programs (UNIS, 2005) Conclusion   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Significant increase in the global production and trading of opium and coca derived drugs were first taken note of in the 1970’s and eventually decreased in momentum by the 1990’s (Burnham Burnham, 1997). The probability that the objectives set by the UN’s General Assembly for 2008 can be achieved based on current levels of illegal drug trafficking is unlikely. We can take comfort that control of the trade is possible. In the first couple of years of the century, Afghanistan was able to bring down opium production due to enforcement of the Taliban (â€Å"Drug Industry Threatens to Derail Afghanistans State Building†, 2006). However, the means by which the Taliban was able to affect the development is not one that can be considered an option by the UN or other states: it enables violent persecution that in the course of its objectives victimized innocent farmers as well (Lubin, 2001).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The drug trade and rafficking in the region as Svante E Cornell says is one that is the result of   â€Å"the complex evolution of organized crime as a security challenge in Eurasia† (p.29). The drug trade’s effect of developing shadow economies affords it opportunities to infiltrate legitimate institutions in the society and even take control of it. When this happens, the state becomes at the mercy of criminal elements whose central concern is profit. In Kyrgyzstan, the effect of the drug trade has not just raised concerns against the prevalence of a crime but also has significantly affected the stability of the country. The Kyrgyz have had success in being able to achieve progress in crating the necessary policies mainly thorough its successful social activists but it has yet been able to successful stem the infiltration of drug organization in its economy (Burke, 2001). Though no specific data is available, local media has been vocal in its concerns and they seem to have a reason to be concerned (Cornell, 2006). According to initial information gather by studies conducted by the UNODC, there may be a factual basis to media fears expressed in Kyrgyzstan (UNODC, 1999). Of all the nations in the region, Afghanistan poses the greatest challenge and the greatest potential of creating an impact against the world trade of drugs that is centered in the Central Asian Region.   If the cultivation of the opium is effectively reduced in Afghanistan the world supply of the material can be effectively reduced. The action must be decisive, otherwise, it only increase the status of drug traffickers in the region among the local people. Makarenko believes that, â€Å"There is no room to compromise with known drug traders. There is no room to compromise with corrupt officials. We have to clean things up today because if we dont, this becomes ingrained within society (Esfandiari, 2005). Every effort has to be done from Afghanistan becoming a narco-state. This will not only deter the development of Afghanistan but also of the rest of the region not to mention the prevalence of opium in the rest of world (Cornell, 2006). In conclusion, it is the prevalent and progressive feebleness of the states in Central Asia because of civil conflicts is the factor that has commenced the development of criminal activities in the region. The success of the drug organizations is primarily because of the lack of economic opportunities in the region where they are most prevalent. This another reason why framers become involved in the trade: the farming of opium poppies is more profitable than any other produce and in a country where all supplies are so scarce and overpriced, it has become the only means of survival. Recommendations Programs in the region should focus on increasing stability in the countries in the region. Focus should be given on Afghanistan because it is pivotal in controlling of the supply of opium as well as on Kyrgyzstan because it provides the chance to create a model for control. If the development of the trade in Kyrgyzstan is controlled in its beginning stages, it can provide fundamental elements to the proliferation of the trade. Kyrgyzstan has the potential of creating the strategies needed because of a proactive civil social that has previously successful in bringing forth change in the society. There has been more vocalized concerning the infiltration of syndicates into the government and businesses. Regional programmers should capitalize on this unique opportunity to crate the effective agenda against the drug trade. The pivotal factor in the battle against drug trafficking in the region and the rest of the world is the control of the production in Afghanistan. To be able to do this, government infrastructures have to established and enforced in rural areas of the country. The UN’s various objectives to support the economic recovery of the country should be continued. Focus on developing communication in identified key areas is essential to create response units that can properly control the problem. The US action of partnering with warlords who have links with the drug trade should not be encouraged. Afghanistan is at a stage that it is trying to establish its authority and sovereignty and consorting with the elements that undermine this can severely deter progress in the country. The ultimate solution to the problem can only be achieved by determined and definitive programs. Programs should reflect the urgency of the situation. Programs should be able to address all levels of the trade through creating preventive measures as well developmental elements like education, rehabilitation and cooperation. Unless the programs gain the support of civil society, then the program will not be able to achieve their full potential. Also, programs should take into consideration more than geopolitical elements into the proposed solutions. The region’s cultural history and experience have combined to create a society that is prone to factionalism but at the same time has a sense of cultural identity that is unique and beyond boundaries. The international community must to take the concerns in the region as if it was their own. Central Asian states do not have the resources to tackle the problem themselves. However, this does not diminish the urgency of controlling the drug trade that amplifies crime, empowers illicit activities and terrorism and destabilizes the state. Insurgent, criminal and terrorist organizations will continue to engage in illicit drug activities because of the magnitude of the financial gains that can be sourced from it. Unless people are given alternatives for livelihood, cultivation will continue. Unless government and civil society work together in politically, socially and ethnically sensitive program, no real success can be achieved. References Afghanistan (2006). Wikipedia Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved on December 4, 2006 from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afghanistan Border Management Programme In Central Asia (BOMCA) (2005). Boosting Border Management Drug Control In Central Asia. Brussels, Belgium: BOMCA Cornell, Svante E. (2006). The Narcotics Threat in Greater Central Asia: From Crime-Terror Nexus to State Infiltration?. China and Eurasia Forum Quarterly Volume 4, No. 1. Central Asia-Caucasus Institute Silk Road Studies Program. pp. 37-67 Burke, Justin (2001). Drug trafficking getting more organized in Central Asia. Kyrgyzstan Daily Digest. Retrieved on December 4, 2006 from http://www.eurasianet.net/resource/kyrgyzstan/hypermail/200107/0006.htm Burnham, R.W. and Burnham, Helen (1997). United Nations World Surveys On Crime Trends And Criminal Justice Systems, 1970-1994: Restructured Five-Wave Data Washington, DC: U.S. Department Of Justice, National Institute Of Justice Central Asia (2006). Wikipedia Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved on December 4, 2006 from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Asia Drug Industry Threatens to Derail Afghanistans State Building (2006). United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) News Service. Retrieved on December 4, 2006 from http://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/press_release_2006_11_28.html Esfandiari, Golnaz (2004). Central Asia: Drug Trafficking Has Devastating Social, Economic Impact.   Retrieved on December 4, 2006 from http://www.rferl.org/featuresarticle/2004/06/0761f337-a1de-4b7c-a5d0-bbdaeb20d5f1.html Kyrgyz State Commission on Drug Control (1999). Drug Proliferation in the Kyrgyz Republic. Bishkek: Kyrgyz State Commission on Drug Control Kyrgyzstan (2006). Wikipedia Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved on December 4, 2006 from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kyrgyzstan Kyrgyzstan Confronted By Narcotics Nightmare As Drug Trade Booms (2004). Eurasia Insight – Eurasianet.   Retrieved on December 4, 2006 from http://www.eurasianet.org/departments/insight/articles/eav031904.shtml Lubin, Nancy  (2001). Eurasia Insight Drug Trafficking In Central Asia: A Matter Of Survival For Some. Eurasianet. http://www.eurasianet.org/departments/insight/articles/eav050901.shtml Maitra, Ramtanu (2005). Follow the drugs: US shown the way.   Asia Times Online October   27, 2005. Retrieved on December 4, 2006 from http://www.atimes.com/atimes/Central_Asia/GJ27Ag02.html Marat, Erica (2006). Impact of Drug Trade and Organized Crime on State Functioning in Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan. China and Eurasia Forum Quarterly Volume 4, No. 1. Central Asia-Caucasus Institute Silk Road Studies Program. pp. 93-111 McDermott, Roger (2006). Dushanbe Looks Towards Afghanistan To Combat Drug Trafficking. Jamestown Volume 3 Number 6 January 10, 2006. Retrieved on December 4, 2006 from http://www.jamestown.org/edm/article.php?article_id=2370646 Nazemroaya, Mahdi Darius (2006). The War in Afghanistan: Drugs, Money Laundering and the Banking System. Global Research October 17, 2006. Retrieved on December 4, 2006 from http://www.globalresearch.ca/index.php?context=viewArticlecode=NAZ20061017articleId=3516 Olcott, Martha Brill and Udalova, Natalia (2000). Drug Trafficking on the Great Silk Road: The Security Environment in Central Asia. Washington, D.C.: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace Saidazimova, Gulnoza (2005). Central Asia: Experts Say Region Should Look To Golden Triangle To Combat Drug Smuggling. Retrieved on December 4, 2006 from http://www.rferl.org/featuresarticle/2005/01/37d15755-5c22-4df6-a4a9-2ab9cc3ab944.html Swanstrom, Niklas (2001). Central Asia as a transit region for drugs. Speaking Freely Asia Times Online August 28, 2001. Retrieved on December 4, 2006 from http://www.atimes.com/atimes/Central_Asia/EH28Ag01.html Swanstrà ¶m, Niklas (2003). The Southeast Asian And Chinese Connection To Drug Trade In Central Asia. Central Asia Caucasus Analyst August 27, 2003. Retrieved on December 4, 2006 from http://www.cacianalyst.org/view_article.php?articleid=1676. Threat Posed from the Convergence of Organized Crime, Drug Trafficking, and Terrorism (2000). Retrieved on December 4, 2006 from http://www.csis.org/hill/ts001213cilluffo.html. United Nations General Assembly (1998). United National General Assembly Special Session (UNGASS) Drug Policy Targets For 2008. New York: United Nations. United Nations Information Service (UNIS) (2005). Drug Chiefs from Afghanistan and Colombia Meet with UNODC Executive Director in Vienna. Vienna, Austria: UN Information Service. Retrieved on December 4, 2006 from http://www.unis.unvienna.org/unis/pressrels/2005/unisnar887.html United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) (1999). Global Illicit Drug Trends. Vienna, Austria: UNODC UNDCP Research Section United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) (2006a). 2006 World Drug Report Volume 1: Analysis. New York: United Nations Publication United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) (2006b). 2006 World Drug Report Volume 2: Statistics. New York: United Nations Publication United Nations Security Council (UN-SC) (2003). Security Council Urges The International Community To Strengthen Cooperation Against Drug Production And Trafficking In Afghanistan. Retrieved on December 4, 2006 from http://www.un.org/av/photo/sc/sc061703.htm

Tourism And International Cooperation Tourism Essay

Tourism And International Cooperation Tourism Essay This paper examines the role of international organizations such as the World Bank, the United Nations World Tourism Organization, the European Union and host of other regional based bodies in the promotion of tourism as a tool for development, poverty reduction, socio-economic integration and economic diversification. There is no doubt that tourism has had immense contribution to many third world countries. As a matter of fact, Sharpley and Telfer (2002) opine that among the contemporary economies, tourism has continuously been referred to as the worlds largest industry (p.2). This is because it is one of the fastest growing economic sectors with its contributions being different from other sectors as it contributes to development by generating foreign exchange. As Grenfell (2010) finds, most developing countries depend on tourists from the developed countries and that foreign tourism in many developing nations is more valued and developed than domestic tourism which is underdevelop ed and undervalued (p.3). Tourism can therefore help in eliminating the economic gap that exists between the developed and the developing nations. For international community (developed world) to meaningfully help the third world countries, they need to be actively involved in the vital sectors of economy of these countries. It is therefore crucial that the international community should help these third world countries in the creation of infrastructure in order to promote tourism activities which in turn contribute to the overall economic advancement of these countries. The paper considers ways through which these international bodies can help boost tourism activities in less developed sub-Saharan countries to transform them to performing economies. To this end, the paper will utilize the case of Kenya and Egypt, two sub-Saharan countries experiencing steady economic growth. So as to make a strong argument the paper holds that while many third world countries are endowed with a wide range of economic resources and/or activities, international tourism has over the years continued to play a central role in shaping their economic destinies. International Tourism and Development Tourism in its simplest definition refers to the industry that provides travel and entertainment facilities for people away from their own homes (Richmond, 2000). However, it is important to note that in tourism, there are seasons when the activities are at peak and other times when they go off peak. Most tourists usually go for tourism activities during their vacations which might be based on domestic and/or international calendars. International tourism evolved after the Second World War and by the year 1999, it accounted for six percent of the global economy (Ghosh, Siddique Gabbay, 2003, p.19). This finding is in line with the generalization that tourism accounts for a significant portion of the world economy. In connection to this, it can be argued that international tourism has been a culmination of efforts made by the international community to alleviate developing countries from their vicious cycles of poverty. This argument is supported by the fact most international communities have been at the forefront in sensitizing developing nations on the need to invest heavily in relevant sectors like tourism for sustainable growth and development. After all, and Zhao and Xingqun (2010) finds, the development of any country is the only practical mechanism capable of lifting people out of vicious cycles of poverty and making them equal partners in the society (p.207). Apparently, these authors agree that being one of the major ways through which developing nations earns foreign exchange, tourism has continuously provided the most practical path along which masses can easily be uplifted from the densely intertwined vicious cycles of poverty their reside in. Theories in Tourism Development From a conventional tourism context, at least three theoretical frameworks have been fronted in attempts to streamline the industry and extract the most benefits out of it. These theories include dependency, development versus underdevelopment, and basic needs versus human development theories. It is imperative to point out that these theories have been applied independently and sometimes by players in understanding its management. Dependency Theory Dependency theory is about the unequal economic and political exchange that normally takes place between the developed countries and the less developed ones (Britton, 1982, p.56). The theory is concerned about the dependency that exists in the world in the sense that most developing countries have been noted to continually seek help from the developed countries, help that has mostly been used for infrastructure development purposes in major economic sectors such as tourism. Development versus Underdevelopment Theory On the other hand, underdevelopment theory holds that underdeveloped nations promote tourism with the main aim of making it to be a sector that generates foreign exchange and in so doing help them realize development goals. For instance, many developing nations have been keen on promoting tourism activities in bid to create more employment opportunities for their people, utilize natural as well as manmade resources, and most importantly, as a way of attracting development partners which in turn enhance economic independence (Martin Ian, 2009, p. 53). Even so, it is imperative to point out that unlike the dependency theory the development versus underdevelopment theory is built on the premises of good corporate governance and unrelenting evolutionary pressures emanating from perpetual demographics and technological change (Milne, 2001, p.372). As such therefore, this theory seems to be more bent on incorporating international institutions given that it is known that they play a core role in enhancing transparency and accountability among developing economies. Tellingly, this theory has a got a firm conviction on the role played by these global institutions in shaping tourism advancement and development particularly in the third world countries. Though they are many the most conspicuous (in terms of their overall contributions) of these institutions are; World Bank and International Monetary Fund which have been instrumental in shaping tourism activities especially in the less developed countries. Basic Needs versus Human Development Theory Public policy enthusiasts have been noted to base most of their analysis on the Maslows hierarchy of needs which is by far one of the most motivational theories in the public domain (Andriotis, 2001, p.312). In relation to tourism activities, it is arguable that tourists also attach great importance on the hierarchy of needs as presented by Maslow when making tour expedition plans. For instance, one of the greatest concerns among tourists is their safety. This is because when their physiological safety is guaranteed their self esteem will be boosted and therefore this will heighten the chances of self actualization which has been noted to be the greatest achievement that many tourists seek while in their tour expedition. Role of the World Bank and other International Agencies in Tourism and International Development World Bank and other international institutions have the noble role of facilitating international development. However, most of these developments have been concentrated in the less developed countries as these institutions embark on fulfilling one of their core mandate of facilitating growth and development in the form of bridging the gap between the developed world and the less development countries. The devotion of the World Bank in trying to bring international development in these nations can be seen from several bodies, for example, International Finance Corporation which is one of the World Bank constituent agencies has immensely invested in tourism especially in the poorest countries of the world (Youthink, 2010). World Bank and International Monetary Fund (IMF) have also been major players in infrastructural development in the least developed countries. Infrastructures such as road and other telecommunication network have been brought up in these countries under the initiative of World Bank and IMF. The provision of infrastructure facilities and services for tourists, that is, roads, communications, health and sanitation services have been designed to benefit the tourists and the local communities at the same time (WTO, 2002, p.31).this has occasioned progressive development in majority of these countries. In addition, World Tourism Organization, a sector-specific organization that brings together tourist destination territories in close partnership with both the World Bank and the IMF, is tasked with the core role of promoting development and sustainability of tourism activities particularly among developing countries. This organization makes sure that global ethics and codes on matters that relates to tourism are strictly adhered to by the member countries (International Relations Cooperation, 2011). No doubt, efforts coordinated through this organization have over the years continued to bring about sustained growth and development which translates to the overall economic advancement of its member states which in turn leads to international development. International Cooperation Initiatives that Contribute to Tourism and Development As earlier mentioned, tourism is a key aspect in any countrys development agenda. As such therefore, in a bid to guarantee rapid growth and advancement through tourism, a number of international cooperation initiatives have since been instituted to help contribute to tourism and development as a whole. For instance, the World Travel and Tourism Council (WTTC) is one of these co-operations that have been put in place to help steer tourism and development agendas among member countries. Precisely, ever since it was incorporation WTTC has been committed to enhancing environmentally sustainable development programs (Department of Economic and Social Affairs, 1999, p.3). Away from the specific roles that WTTC plays and basing on the notion that tourism is heavily depended on environmental features it is only wise to argue that any cooperation that intends to promote tourism must safeguard the immediate environment so as to avoid the depletion of natural features for the future tourism activities. In this regard and according to WTTC research, the travel and tourism sector in India, for instance, generates as much as 17.7 million employment opportunities for both Indian citizens and nationals of other countries. No doubt this is a practical indicator that indeed tourism industry plays a central role in creating positive development co-operations among the world economies. In addition, in Central America, the countries in the region formed America Regional Integration (ARI) that bring the countries together in the region and facilitates cooperation initiatives in several spheres of the economy. ARI outlines several contours of the dual processes of regional integration and tourism development in the region (Ferguson, 2010). This brings forth cooperation of the member countries in collaboration on issues that relate to tourism and general development matters. Moreover, International Tourism Partnership (ITP) is another international body that brings forth cooperation among nations on issues relating to tourism. Within ITP, airlines, hotels, tour operators and Non Governmental Organizations (NGOs) work together to promote sustainable business activities within tourism and travel industry (Sharpley David, 2008, p.3). This ensures coordination of tourists activities which is very important to tourist related features that spans several countries. Given that tourism is taken to be a driver of economies of most countries, it is therefore important that bilateral and multilateral cooperation among neighbouring as well as far apart countries be interwoven with tourism activities. Most countries have therefore entered into foreign policy cooperation with several partners in crafting joint policies that seek to promote tourist activities between or among them (David, Maria Ginger, 2008, p.141). perhaps this is following the realization that joint policy formulation between and among nations provides good operating environment for tourism activities which in turn spur economic growth among the participating parties. Tourism has also become a core factor in poverty alleviation through Sustainable Tourism Eradicate Poverty (STEP), an initiative that has since gained support from major tourist destination territories across the developing world. In the year 2000, poverty was identified as the biggest challenge on the globe and therefore millennium development goals were set up to help eradicate poverty by the year 2015. Those in tourism sector responded well for the call and World Tourism Organization launched STEP initiative which is focused on long term mechanisms of sustaining tourism activities that can alleviate poverty and ensure development of the less developed countries (World Tourism Organization, 2010). The STEP is a proactive initiative that seeks to bring forth development to the disadvantaged groups especially in the less developed nations in order to attain the millennium development goal number one of poverty eradication. The Case Study of Kenya and Egypt Tourism Profile in Kenya Tourism is one of the most stable and well established sectors of the Kenyan economy. As a matter of fact, the tourism industry occupies the second position in terms of foreign exchange earnings amassed by the country every year (Davies Knivett, 2008, p. 215). The main attraction ranges from national parks which are spread around the country and game reserves. The renowned Great Rift Valley scenery is also another key tourist attraction in the country. These are the key tourism activities although there are other diverse natural as well as manmade features that serve as supplements to the main features. The Kenya Tourist Board (KTB) is the central agency formulated by the Kenyan government to spearhead all matters related to the marketing of the industry. In addition, the seriousness with which tourism activities are taken within the country is underscored by the fact that the Kenyan government has created an independent ministry to coordinate tourism activities within the country. The KTB as well as a host of other national and international agencies that are actively involved in running tourism activities in the country operate under this ministry. Some of these bodies include Ecotourism Kenya which promotes sustainable tourism practices within the tourism industry in the country (Ecotourism Kenya, 2011). This ensures that the environment which is vital in tourism activities is not adversely affected by man activities as well as enhancement of sustainable activities that relate to tourism for the future of the country. Given that Kenya is endowed with a wide range of diversity of resources that ranges right from mountain ecosystems, marine to arid and semi arid (Mwanjala, 2005, p.4), it can be argued that this body plays a core role. In addition, the Kenya government has put much emphasis on the conservation of natural ecosystems and in so doing a total of twenty seven national parks, four wildlife sanctuaries and thirty four national reserves have since been set aside and continuously protected by the successive governments as a way of promoting sustainable tourism activities. International Agencies Involvement in Tourism Development in Kenya For a long time, the Kenyan government has continued to recognize the tourism sector as a tool for poverty alleviation and economic advancement. In so doing, the government has sought cooperation from the international community in participating actively in tourism activities within the country. For instance, the government has succeeded in initiating sustainable cooperation with international agencies such as the World Bank, International Monetary Fund and other United Nations bodies to assist in instituting necessary infrastructure that could facilitate tourists activities. This has led to deeper involvement of these international bodies in setting up of key structures for example, most of the major highways in the country were put up by the joint efforts of the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund (Manyara Jones, 2009, p.238). This has positively impacted on the growth of tourism sector as well as other related sectors such as hospitality and agricultures industries. In addition, Kenya has ever since been a member of the International Ecotourism Society (TIES) which is the agency that coordinates ecotourism in the world (Akama, 2002, p.12). The organization therefore promotes tourism development in Kenya by providing technical assistance, training, research in the tourism sector and provision of standards and guidelines that ensures that tourism services and products maintains and upholds the standards required in the world market and in so doing promoting and upholding the existing natural ecosystems. How Tourism Development has Addressed Some Problems in Kenya Kenya is a developing country characterized by several problems that are related to underdevelopment. The most dominant of all these problems is the increasing poverty levels among majority of its population. Over the years, the tourism sector has continued to occupy the central position in the fight against the increasing levels of poverty particularly among communities living within most natural ecosystems frequented by tourists. As a matter of fact, through the foreign exchange that the country amasses every year, several development initiatives are established in addressing the biting poverty levels within the country. As dominant sector in the country, tourism has employed quite a significant number of the Kenyan population. Today several Kenyans serves in several sub sectors of the industry that include tour guides, transport services, as well as areas of food and beverages and accommodations services. A significant percent of the population earn their living from these tourism related occupations and as a result contribute immensely to the Gross Domestic Product of the country. Apart from solving unemployment related problems, tourism also helps in fighting and alleviating poverty problems in the country (Jenkins, 1982, p.62).Needless to say, by addressing these two core social problems, tourism has positively boosted the countrys economy. Developing countries have also been characterized by poor infrastructure network and Kenya is not an exception. However, with the involvement of the international agencies such as World Bank and IMF in boosting tourism activities, several infrastructural facilities have since been set up (Walter, 2003). Despite this contributing to tourism, it has also been beneficial to the entire economic performance as other sectors of the economy such as trade, agriculture among others also use these infrastructural developments. This has indirectly helped to address even other sectors such as telecommunication in the country. Effectiveness of International Cooperation Initiatives in Tourism Development in Kenya International cooperation has been beneficial to the tourism sector in Kenya. Through international initiative like efforts put in by organs such as the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund, tourism has been identified as the most promising industry in developing states including Kenya (James, 2010). The international cooperation that exists between Kenya and these agencies has led to effective as structures of economy being set up which both tourism and other sectors of the economy have benefited. The core objective of tourism as a sector of the economy is to accelerate the economy of the country through sound tourism management. This has been effective in the Kenyan case since tourism is graded as the second largest foreign earner to the country. This has been made possible by initiatives of the international agencies in promoting tourist activities in the country which have resulted to positive outcome where by tourism earning have been d increasing tremendously. Tourism profile in Egypt Historically, Egypt has been widely known for its massive tourism industry. It has always been a destination where Europeans and other groups visit to see some of its antiquities dating back to the eras of early civilization (Egypt Government, 2010). There are unique tourism destinations in Egypt which includes but not limited to Safaga, Hurghada, Sharm el Sheikh, pyramids among others which have been at the centre of attraction for many tourists. This makes tourism one of the most valuable and important sector of the Egypt economy. For example, in the year 2008, eleven billion US dollars of the countrys income was attributed to tourism sector. In terms of infrastructural institution, Egypt is fairly developed compared to other developing countries in the region and this gives it some edge against other players such as Kenya (Tama, 1988). The peak season for tourists activities in Egypt starts from mid October to May which is normally characterized by spring and winter in terms of climatic conditions. However, it is important to note that in terms of safety, terrorism has at occasions affected the industry negatively with foreign tourists being targeted as potential victims. This has often translated to negative impacts on the industry. How Tourism Development is Addressed Some Problems in Egypt Tourism has been described as the act of people travelling to and staying in places outside their usual environment for leisure and which has been remarkable for economic and social improvements of countries and their people (Zakaria et al, 2009). In this regard, Egypt has been a dominant player in the fields of tourism due to its historical richness. The country has therefore reaped heavily from the sector and in so doing; tourism has helped to address several problems of underdevelopment. This ranges from infrastructural development, to creation of employment opportunities to stable economy. The significant revenues that are accrued from the tourism sector are also diverted and used in other sectors of the economy. For example, some of the revenues are directed to the education sector where by significant improvement and advancements have since been made. This has helped in solving the illiteracy problem which is a major problem to most developing countries. Effectiveness of International Cooperation Initiatives in Tourism Development in Egypt There exist several international agencies that are in cooperation with Egypt whose main agenda is to develop tourism industry which in turn helps to revolutionize the economy. For example, there exists several Italian NGOs which have since partnered with the civil society with the aim of promoting development through tourist related activities (Cooperation Italiana, 2011). Through these NGOs a number social initiatives have since been directly initiated among the communities living near major tourist attractions and indirectly across the country nation-wide activities that span a wide range of social issues such as education, health, security and agriculture. This has been made possible through giving-back-to-the-community initiatives which are part of the wider mutual partnerships between the Italian and the Egyptian governments. In addition, UN constituent agencies such as the UNESCO have also entered into cooperation which the government of Egypt where several initiatives within the realm of education and cultural tourism have since been undertaken (Yerevan, 1981). As a matter of fact, the agreement on cultural tourism can be argued to be a positive measure toward the protection and promotion of the Egyptian cultural sites and practices. Through this cooperation, various cultural sites and activities have been successfully marketed leading to significant improvement and development in tourism activities and hence the entire Egyptian economy. In addition, Egypt enjoy close foreign cooperation with the United States and it is from this close ties that United States-Egypt Friendship Society was established (Egypt, 2008). This cooperation has facilitated economic benefits to Egypt from United States which are granted to the government of Egypt to improve various tourism activities alongside with other sectors of the economy. Moreover, Egypt is a member of the Triangular Cooperation which is an organization that draws it membership from several countries and which provide aid to different sectors of the economy to the member states (Talita, 2010). This cooperation has contributed positively to the development of Egypt economy as the aid given is directed to development sectors including but not limited to tourism. This has translated to positive economic development of Egypt as a country as it is one of the stable economies among the developing world. Conclusion Tourism is a global phenomenon which manifests itself locally, regionally and internationally. It is widely categorized into two categories, with tourism activities that involve purely local people being referred to as domestic tourism while those involving participants from across the border are referred to as foreign tourism. Tourism has been proved to be a vital driver of economies of majority of the countries. In the two developing countries discussed in this paper (Kenya and Egypt), tourism has been at the centre stage in transforming their economies and addressing pertinent societal concerns such as poverty, unemployment and illiteracy. In addition, tourism has also positively impacted on other sectors of economy in these two countries through the improvement of the local infrastructure frameworks.